The three models of memory Essay Example for Free

The three models of memory Essay The cognitive approach in psychology deals with human thought and mental processes such as memory, remembering and problem solving. The cognitive approach is interested in how people take in information, how they mentally represent it and how they store it. It also looks at how the information is perceived and processed and how integrated patterns of behaviour occur. Memory is fundamental to our lives, we have to recall who we are, recognise the faces of everyone we meet and remember how to move and communicate. Several models of the way in which memory is structured and how it functions have been advanced and although there are many differences between the models, they all view memory as a means of processing information. We do not simply record information, we carry out some sort of processing as we eliminate, store, organise and reconstruct the information we receive. This information processing occurs in three stages: encoding, storage and retrieval. Encoding involves converting the information we receive from our senses into something that we represent mentally Storage involves holding information over a period of time in preparation for when it is needed, and retrieval involves recovering stored information. There are three models of memory; one of these is the multi store model. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed an influential multi- store model, which suggested that there are three types of information store. The three types of memory stores are the sensory store, the short term store and the long term store. When a stimulus invades on our senses then the information passed from the sensory store, onto the short term store and then into long term store. Short Term Memory (STM) has an extremely limited capacity between five and nine. Miller (1956) suggested that the capacity of STM is The Magic Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two. Information can be lost very easily if the information is not rehearsed it remains in short term memory for about 20-30 seconds. Long Term Memory (LTM) has an unlimited amount of information which can be store which can last a long time; some psychologists believe that memories  are never truly forgotten from LTM they simply cannot be easily retrieved at will. Also the mode of storage in the LTM is meaning fullness if you understand information you are more likely to remember it. This is in contrast to STM where, if you recall, sound is important, and remembering is much more dependent on precise recall. Atkinson and Shiffrin regarded the stores as the structural components of the model, but also proposed a number of control processes, such as attention, coding and rehearsal, which operate in conjunction with the stores. Not all psychologists consider it useful to distinguish between short term and long term memory. Levels of Processing is one of such model: it sees memory as a single dimension rather than a series of separate stores. The main principle of this model is that we process information in different ways and the more deeply we process it, the more likely it is to be stored in memory and able to be recalled. According to the levels of processing framework, stimulus information is processed at multiple levels simultaneously depending upon its characteristics. Furthermore, the deeper the processing, the more that will be remembered. For example, information that involves strong visual images or many associations with existing knowledge will be processed at a deeper level. Similarly, information that is being attended to receives more processing than other stimuli/events. The theory also supports the finding that we remember things that are meaningful to us because this requires more processing than meaningless stimuli. Information is more easily readily transferred to LTM if it is considered, understood and related to past memories to gain meaning than if it is merely repeated. This degree of consideration was termed the depth of processing the deeper information was processed, the longer the memory trace would last. Craik and Lockhart gave three examples of levels at which verbal information could be processed: Structural level- e.g. merely paying attention to what the words look like  (shallow processing) Phonetic level- processing the sound of the words Semantic level- considering the meaning of words (deep processing). Finally the last model of memory is reconstructive memory, in contrast to much cognitive research on memory, which focuses on quantitative tests of how many randomly selected digits, words or nonsense syllables can be remembered under strictly controlled conditions, the reconstructive memory approach has tended to concentrate more on qualitative changes in what is remembered, often of more everyday material such as stories, pictures or witnessed events under more natural conditions. In comparison with the level of processing theory, which emphasizes what happens when memories are encoded and stored, the reconstructive memory approach is more concerned with what happens when information is stored and retrieved from memory. Bartlett (1932) the pioneer of reconstructive memory argued that people do not passively record memories as exact copies of new information they receive, but actively try and make sense of it in terms of what they already know- a process called effort after meaning. Bartlett proposed that new information may be remembered in a distorted way since memories are imaginative reconstructions of the original information in the light of each individual past experiences and expectations rather than remembering what actually happened we may remember what we think should or could have occurred. The three models have both similarities and differences between them; both the multi store model, levels of processing theory have many similarities among them. Firstly they both offer explanations for different types of memory/levels; Short term memory in the multi store model is the equivalent to shallow processing in the levels of processing theory and long term memory is equivalent to deeper processing. There is a huge amount of  research evidence for both, Craik and Tulving (1975) did an experiment to show Levels of Processing they proposed that as well as depth of processing determining the extent of long- term memory retention, they amount the processing was also important. Murdoch (1962) and Glanzer and Cunitz did an experiment to show the serial position effect in the multi store model, this serial position effect has been used as evidence that two separate stores are in operation and the words are being retrieved from these two stores. However a difference is that more evidence has been found for the multi store model than levels of processing theory, Miller (1956) suggested that the capacity of Short term memory TM is The Magic Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two. Reconstructive memory also explains different types/levels of memory similar levels of processing theory and the multi store model. However reconstructive memory only explains long term memory and not short term memory, deeper processing is linked to schemata which are mental representations of existing knowledge to make sense of what goes on in the world.

The Character Flaws of Macbeth Essay -- Macbeth essays

The Character Flaws of Macbeth      Ã‚  Ã‚   Since The Tragedy of Macbeth was written there has been speculation about the cause of Macbeth's downfall.   Readers ponder whether Macbeth's fall was caused by a flaw in his character, Lady Macbeth, or an outside force of evil.   Although the witches set a certain mood and Lady Macbeth exerts a certain influence on him, Macbeth's downfall is caused by his own character.      Ã‚  Ã‚   Macbeth's tragic flaw in character was the paradoxical pairing of his ambition with his passivity.   Throughout the play we see many examples of Macbeth's conflict between his ambition to attain the crown and his passive attitude towards the actions that are required to obtain it.   Macbeth's ambition is first illustrated in his susceptibility to the idea of becoming king, introduced by the witch's prophecies. When the witches greet Macbeth by saying, "All hail, Macbeth!   That shall be king hereafter" ( I, iii, 50)      Ã‚  Ã‚   Banquo observes that Macbeth seems "rapt" (I, iii, 58) and Macbeth says, "Stay, you imperfect speakers, tell me more?say from whence you owe this strange intelligence??.Speak, I charge you" (71-79). As scholar A. C Bradley observes, "The words of the witches are fatal to [Macbeth] only because there is in him something which leaps into light at the sound of them" ( 289).   However, this ambitious attitude soon changes to passivity when he realizes the grave actions that are required of him.   The contrast between Macbeth's ambition and his passivity-caused by reluctance to do evil-is depicted clearly by his actions and thoughts that occur before he murders Duncan.   Macbeth focuses on "the deterrent, not the incentives"; he is plagued by the "spectral bloody dagger" rather than the though... ...o Macbeth, they point to the unfolding of his evil.   He was ambitious enough to want to be king but not shrewd enough to have thought through the eventual consequences of his conniving.      Ã‚  Ã‚   Although there were many contributing factors to Macbeth's downfall, the primary cause was his own character flaw.   His internal contradiction between ambition and passivity allowed him to become susceptible to the witches' prophecies and Lady Macbeth's wickedness and eventually led to his downfall and death.    Works Cited Bradley, A.C.  Ã‚   Shakespearean Tragedy. Fawcett Publications: Greenwich, Conn., 1965. Shakespeare, William.   The Complete Works of William Shakespeare.   Oxford University Press:   London, 1964. Stoll, Elmer Edgar.   "Source and Motive in Macbeth and Othello."   Ed.   Leonard F. Dean.   Oxford University Press:   New York, 1961, 282-93.

Junot Diaz Treflection Essay

From what I had previously read and heard from about Junot Diaz, I expected the typical speaker that usually stops by our campus: tall male, dressed in a suite, with a charming personality. Knowing he was a Hispanic author I felt like I would be exposed to nothing new during his readings or presence for that matter ( seeing as how being from Colombia and have had a lot of exposure to Hispanic authors). This immediately changed as a couple classmates and I got together to walk over to Sorenson Hall, and, as I we were walking to the auditorium, found multiple students heading to the same even but not because their curriculum required it but rather because they were so intrigued to hear him speak. Obviously, this triggered my own interest in what this author, that I originally found so predictable, had to say. From the moment he set foot on the stage to when he said goodbye, I was intrigued. Diaz evoked a casual atmosphere; through cursing and joking he made the crowd feel comfortable. What I found most interesting was how he explained the different views between him and his family and how looked negatively it seemed for him to become an artist. He also explained multiple aspects about the cultural differences, and talked about the concepts of â€Å"trading your culture† he explained how crazy it is to realize at our age that everyone’s dreams aren’t your dreams. I agreed with everything he had to say and I found the way he evoked his opinions, through casual conversation and a comical tone, to be very effective. What I found most interesting though, is how he compared writing to an art form which says the stuff people don’t want to hear. As he was talking about this topic, I couldn’t help but compare his style of writing to that of graffiti art. He holds a rebellious attitude towards society that makes his writing appealing. Attending this reading taught me much about the topic of learning by making mistakes. My whole life, I’ve been raised thinking that mistakes shouldn’t occur, and the fact that he mentioned that one should take time out to learn through failure and making mistakes caught my attention immediately. Attending Diaz’s reading has been one of the most interesting things I’ve experience while at Babson and I know that when I type the last sentence of this reflection I am buying logging on to amazon and buying his book.

The Culture And Concept Of Culture - 1665 Words

One of the most influential and central concepts of anthropology is the nature and concept of culture. The concept and idea of culture dominated 20th century thought, and can be used as an explanation as well as an object of fascination for many anthropologists today. While there are various theories and approaches to culture and the interpretation of it, I would solely like to examine the Cultural Relativist approach, and the Boasian thinkers associated with this particular approach. I would also like to examine how the current time period in which the cultural relativist approach emerged truly conflicts with the dominant politics. In specifics, I would like to examine Franz Boas himself, but most notably Ruth Benedict, and the paradoxes that have occurred within the period after her publications. Franz Boas (1858-1942) was a famous anthropologist credited with the founding of the cultural relativist approach, which is a major theory within the discipline of anthropology. What is important for many involved in the study of anthropology is that Franz Boas cultivated a foundation that many other thinkers and theorist built their own ideas upon, especially associated thinkers like Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict (which will be mentioned in greater detail later). What Franz Boas is also credited with, is his efforts of using his academic and scientific background in the effort to combat racism (Liro, 2003). During his lifetime, Boas often cited the difference between theShow MoreRelatedThe Concept Of Culture Of An Organization1117 Words   |  5 PagesThe concept of culture The culture of an organization is the key element to understand both internal and external environment. As we have sensed that cultural diversity is no longer a serious problem to be solved in business. Conversely, culture can provide a source of competitive advantage (Schneider and Barsoux, 2003). 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